The First Apology of Justin Martyr, Chapter LXVIII. Clemens was from the frontier province of Pannonia and had served in the war in Mauretania. [64] For his dutiful behaviour, Antoninus was asked to accept the name 'Pius'. He sent a note to the imperial freedman Charilas, asking if he could call on the emperors. [256] On 12 October of that year, Marcus proclaimed two of his sons, Annius and Commodus, as his heirs. [110] Marcus had grown tired of his exercises, of taking positions in imaginary debates. It was presumably there that, on 15 October 172, he was given the victory title Germanicus, in the presence of the army. [104], Fronto never became Marcus's full-time teacher, and continued his career as an advocate. Hadrian instruerte sin etterfølger Antoninus Pius i å adoptere Marcus og Lucius Verus, sønnen til en annen avdød senator (som Hadrian i utgangspunktet hadde ønsket som tronarving).. Marcus Aurelius fikk den beste utdannelse, blant annet i retorikk og filosofi, og viste seg som en … His assassination in 192 marked the end of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. Although, perhaps not a first-rank or original philosopher, his "Meditations" remain revered as a literary monument and as a succinct statement of Stoic philosophy. Papirius Dionysius was executed, too. Marcus Aurelius not only named his son heir, but he was also the first emperor in almost one hundred years to actually have a legitimate son to pass imperium (the power of Emperor) on to. In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is labeled De bello Parthico (On the Parthian War). He was left-handed and very proud of the fact. Husband of Ceionia Fabia: Levick (2014), p. 164. As tribune, he had the right to bring one measure before the senate after the four Antoninus could introduce. Statues of Commodus were demolished. He was too anxious to relax. [228][note 16] Libo died early in the war; perhaps Lucius had murdered him. [37] Marcus thanks his grandfather for teaching him 'good character and avoidance of bad temper'. [29] According to Herodian, spectators of Commodus thought it unbecoming of an emperor to take up arms in the amphitheater for sport when he could be campaigning against barbarians among other opponents of Rome. [152] Marcus became, in official titulature, Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; Lucius, forgoing his name Commodus and taking Marcus's family name Verus, became Imperator Caesar Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus. [241], Occupied Armenia was reconstructed on Roman terms. He and Faustina, Marcus wrote, had been 'pretty occupied' with the girl's care. Fronto would later explain that he had not dared to write the emperors directly. The hope has become a reality. [149], Although Marcus showed no personal affection for Hadrian (significantly, he does not thank him in the first book of his Meditations), he presumably believed it his duty to enact the man's succession plans. [75] But he felt drowned in paperwork, and complained to his tutor, Marcus Cornelius Fronto: 'I am so out of breath from dictating nearly thirty letters'. It was first published in 1558 in Zurich by Wilhelm Xylander (ne Holzmann), from a manuscript reportedly lost shortly afterwards. [99] Marcus spent time with Fronto's wife and daughter, both named Cratia, and they enjoyed light conversation. Roman History. Marcus Aurelius is also remembered as the last of the Five Good Emperors, who ruled Rome in times of political stability and financial prosperity from the year 96 AD to the year 180. [180] Marcus told Fronto of his reading – Coelius and a little Cicero – and his family. Sister of Trajan's father: Giacosa (1977), p. 7. Antoninus's remains were laid to rest in Hadrian's mausoleum, beside the remains of Marcus's children and of Hadrian himself. He served as Roman consul in 140, 145, and 161. [289] At the end of his history of Marcus's reign, Cassius Dio wrote an encomium to the emperor, and described the transition to Commodus in his own lifetime with sorrow:[291]. [236] He only accompanied the group as far as Brundisium, where they boarded a ship for the east. Vol. Gibbon p. 107 "*1 Commodus killed a camelopardalis or giraffe ... the most useless of the quadrupeds". Pompeianus retired from public life. The most important group of sources, the biographies contained in the Historia Augusta, claimed to be written by a group of authors at the turn of the 4th century AD, but it is believed they were in fact written by a single author (referred to here as 'the biographer') from about 395 AD. The extent to which Marcus himself directed, encouraged, or was aware of these persecutions is unclear and much debated by historians. During their 30-year marriage Faustina bore 13 children, most notably son Commodus who would become Emperor and daughter Lucilla who was wed to Lucius Verus to solidify his alliance with Marcus Aurelius. [9], Marcus was born in Rome on 26 April 121. The historian Herodian, a contemporary, described Commodus as an extremely handsome man. Historia Augusta. Lucius addressed the assembled troops, which then acclaimed the pair as imperatores. [30] Popular rumors spread alleging he was actually the son, not of Marcus Aurelius, but of a gladiator whom his mother Faustina had taken as a lover at the coastal resort of Caieta.[31]. Meditations is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty. A first invasion of the Chatti in the province of Germania Superior was repulsed in 162. Commodus received extensive tutoring by a multitude of teachers with a focus on intellectual education. [39] Finally, Commodus killed a giraffe, which was considered to be a strange and helpless beast.[40]. He sent for Antoninus, who was at his side when he died on 10 July 138. The boy did not survive long, as evidenced by coins from 156, only depicting the two girls. [53] After a brief stationing on the Danube frontier, Aelius returned to Rome to make an address to the Senate on the first day of 138. Marcus Annius Aurelius was born into an established Roman family, but not the royal lineage.From these beginnings, it would seem a remote possibility that he would one day become emperor of the Roman Empire, let alone one of the most famous Roman emperors. Commodus was a known consumptive at the time of his adoption, so Hadrian may have intended Marcus's eventual succession anyway. Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', pp. 'Han Foreign Relations', in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe (eds), This page was last edited on 11 December 2020, at 13:10. [276][277][278] In addition to Republican-era Roman glasswares found at Guangzhou along the South China Sea,[279] Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus and perhaps even Marcus have been found at Óc Eo, Vietnam, then part of the Kingdom of Funan near the Chinese province of Jiaozhi (in northern Vietnam). His recorded actions do tend to show a rejection of his father's policies, his father's advisers, and especially his father's austere lifestyle, and an alienation from the surviving members of his family. Lower Moesia was filled by Pontius Laelianus's son. [200][note 14], More bad news arrived: the Syrian governor's army had been defeated by the Parthians, and retreated in disarray. [54][note 4], On 24 January 138, Hadrian selected Aurelius Antoninus, the husband of Marcus's aunt Faustina the Elder, as his new successor. [38] On another occasion, Commodus killed three elephants on the floor of the arena by himself. He also had four surviving sisters, all of them with husbands who were potential rivals. 'Caesar to Fronto. Marcus probably would have opted for travel and further education instead. He kept in close correspondence with Fronto for many years afterwards. The Emperor Commodus Leaving the Arena at the Head of the Gladiators (detail) by Edwin Howland Blashfield (1848–1936), Hermitage Museum and Gardens, Norfolk, Virginia. [133], Lucius started his political career as a quaestor in 153. Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 163, citing. It would mean the end of the felicitas temporum ('happy times') that the coinage of 161 had proclaimed. [280][note 17] Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to Aurelian have been found in Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an), although the far greater amount of Roman coins in India suggests the Roman maritime trade for purchasing Chinese silk was centred there, not in China or even the overland Silk Road running through Persia. [266] Soon thereafter, the Iranian Sarmatian Iazyges attacked between the Danube and the Theiss rivers. [68] He was made consul for 140 with Antoninus as his colleague, and was appointed as a seviri, one of the knights' six commanders, at the order's annual parade on 15 July 139. [78], On 1 January 145, Marcus was made consul a second time. Han var även känd som stoicistisk tänkare. Quadratus and Quintianus were executed. It had conveyed the drama of the disaster, and the senate had been awed: 'Not more suddenly or violently was the city stirred by the earthquake than the minds of your hearers by your speech'. Farquharson dates his death to 130 when Marcus was nine. Champlin, 'Chronology of Fronto', p. 138. Neem je het pad van een typische dictator en verrijk je jezelf en je volgelingen? [72], Antoninus demanded that Marcus reside in the House of Tiberius, the imperial palace on the Palatine, and take up the habits of his new station, the aulicum fastigium or 'pomp of the court', against Marcus's objections. [65], Immediately after Hadrian's death, Antoninus approached Marcus and requested that his marriage arrangements be amended: Marcus's betrothal to Ceionia Fabia would be annulled, and he would be betrothed to Faustina, Antoninus's daughter, instead. He was succeeded by Pertinax, the first emperor in the tumultuous Year of the Five Emperors. They have been praised by fellow writers, philosophers, monarchs, and politicians centuries after his death. Ofprobeer je het rijk en de mensen daarin beter achter te laten dan dat je ze vond? [253] Lucius took the title Parthicus Maximus, and he and Marcus were hailed as imperatores again, earning the title 'imp. Hadrian died that year and Antoninus became emperor. Numerous members of Germanic tribes settled in frontier regions like Dacia, Pannonia, Germany, and Italy itself. Excerpt from Herodian of Antioch’s History of the Empire from the Death of Marcus. He accompanied his father, Marcus, during the Marcomannic Wars in 172 and on a tour of the Eastern provinces in 176. One such notable event was the attempted extermination of the house of the Quinctilii. Her husband, Pompeianus, was not involved, but two men alleged to have been her lovers, Marcus Ummidius Quadratus Annianus (the consul of 167, who was also her first cousin) and Appius Claudius Quintianus, attempted to murder Commodus as he entered a theater. [156] As the biographer wrote, 'Verus obeyed Marcus...as a lieutenant obeys a proconsul or a governor obeys the emperor'. [166] On 31 August, she gave birth at Lanuvium to twins: T. Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodus. [143] He ate Alpine cheese at dinner quite greedily. [251], By the end of the year, Cassius's army had reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia: Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris and Ctesiphon on the left. [202] Reinforcements were dispatched for the Parthian frontier. Philostratus describes how even when Marcus was an old man, in the latter part of his reign, he studied under Sextus of Chaeronea: The Emperor Marcus was an eager disciple of Sextus the Boeotian philosopher, being often in his company and frequenting his house. [81] In April 145, Marcus married Faustina, legally his sister, as had been planned since 138. Wife of M. Annius Libo: Levick (2014), p. 163. He now took the name Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar. The legions were renamed Commodianae, the fleet which imported grain from Africa was termed Alexandria Commodiana Togata, the Senate was entitled the Commodian Fortunate Senate, his palace and the Roman people themselves were all given the name Commodianus, and the day on which these reforms were decreed was to be called Dies Commodianus. One notorious case brought him into conflict with Atticus. The five horizontal slits allow light into the internal spiral staircase. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman Emperor from 161 to 180. In 161, the. After Antoninus died in 161, Marcus acceded to the throne alongside his adoptive brother, who took the name Lucius Verus. [273], Marcus showed a great deal of respect to the Roman Senate and routinely asked them for permission to spend money even though he did not need to do so as the absolute ruler of the Empire. Recently, he had served as procurator of five provinces. In turn, Antoninus adopted Marcus and Lucius, the son of Aelius. Birley, 'Hadrian to the Antonines', p. 164. I love you and you are not here' in their correspondence. Husband of Ulpia Marciana: Levick (2014), p. 161. Before we begin our studies we need to ask ourselves: Who are the people that followed these precepts? 58 (1968): 32–50. On 15 October 184 at the Capitoline Games, a Cynic philosopher publicly denounced Perennis before Commodus. the wind scatters some on the face of the ground; This matter must be our next topic; for our history now descends from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust, as affairs did for the Romans of that day. He was immediately deified and his ashes were returned to Rome, where they rested in Hadrian's mausoleum (modern Castel Sant'Angelo) until the Visigoth sack of the city in 410. Commodus took the loss of Saoterus badly, and Perennis now seized the chance to advance himself by implicating Paternus in a second conspiracy, one apparently led by Publius Salvius Julianus, who was the son of the jurist Salvius Julianus and was betrothed to Paternus' daughter. The preponderance of Greek tutors indicates the importance of the Greek language to the aristocracy of Rome. A spiral of carved reliefs wraps around the column, showing scenes from his military campaigns. [145] He then turned over, as if going to sleep, and died. [115], Apollonius may have introduced Marcus to Stoic philosophy, but Quintus Junius Rusticus would have the strongest influence on the boy. Husband of Rupilia Faustina: Levick (2014), p. 163. [57] Marcus became M. Aelius Aurelius Verus, and Lucius became L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus. Meditations, the writings of "the philosopher" – as contemporary biographers called Marcus, are a significant source of the modern understanding of ancient Stoic philosophy. [92], Fronto was highly esteemed: in the self-consciously antiquarian world of Latin letters,[93] he was thought of as second only to Cicero, perhaps even an alternative to him. [111] In any case, Marcus's formal education was now over. Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Lucius took the title 'Medicus',[255] and the emperors were again hailed as imperatores, becoming 'imp. He was stronger and healthier than Marcus, the argument went, and thus more suited to military activity. His second modern editor, Champlin notes that Marcus's praise of Rusticus in the, Although part of the biographer's account of Lucius is fictionalized (probably to mimic Nero, whose birthday Lucius shared, These name-swaps have proven so confusing that even the. Commodus' death marked the end of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. [224], Lucius spent most of the campaign in Antioch, though he wintered at Laodicea and summered at Daphne, a resort just outside Antioch. It 'affected his health adversely', his biographer writes, to have devoted so much effort to his studies. [16], Priscus refused to accept their acclamations, and Perennis had all the legionary legates in Britain cashiered. When he criticized the insincerity of conventional language, Fronto took to defend it. Who can I point out as an example? Şi el era torturat de vise bizare, dar nu putea sã-şi altereze realitatea aşa cum o fãcea Marcus Aurelius… Those in particular which refer to the beating and robbing I will describe in such a way that they savour of gall and bile. [103] Marcus asks that Fronto's pain be inflicted on himself, 'of my own accord with every kind of discomfort'. Maecianus was recalled, made senator, and appointed prefect of the treasury (aerarium Saturni). It may have continued into the reign of Commodus. During his solo reign, the Empire enjoyed a period of reduced military conflict compared with the reign of Marcus Aurelius, but intrigues and conspiracies abounded, leading Commodus to an increasingly dictatorial style of leadership that culminated in a god-like personality cult, with him performing as a gladiator in the Colosseum. As he was physically strong, his chief interest was in sport: he took part in horse racing, chariot racing, and combats with beasts and men, mostly in private but also on occasion in public. [2] The later biographies and the biographies of subordinate emperors and usurpers are unreliable, but the earlier biographies, derived primarily from now-lost earlier sources (Marius Maximus or Ignotus), are much more accurate. [240] When Lucius was hailed as imperator again, however, Marcus did not hesitate to take the Imperator II with him. Ulpius Marcellus was replaced as governor of Britain by Pertinax; brought to Rome and tried for treason, Marcellus narrowly escaped death. [182] Soon, however, he would find he had many anxieties. [211] Fronto replied: 'What? M ANTONINVS AVG TR P XXVII, laureate, cuirassed bust of Marcus Aurelius right / COMMODVS CAES GERM ANTONINI AVG GERM FIL, bare-headed, draped and cuirassed bust of Commodus as Caesar right. Some Germanic tribes who settled in Ravenna revolted and managed to seize possession of the city. [246] Before the end of 163, however, Roman forces had moved north to occupy Dausara and Nicephorium on the northern, Parthian bank. An inscribed altar from Dura-Europos on the Euphrates shows that Commodus' titles and the renaming of the months were disseminated to the furthest reaches of the Empire; moreover, that even auxiliary military units received the title Commodiana, and that Commodus claimed two additional titles: Pacator Orbis (pacifier of the world) and Dominus Noster (Our Lord). [20][21] This branch of the Aurelii based in Roman Spain, the Annii Veri, rose to prominence in Rome in the late 1st century AD. [163] The temple he had dedicated to his wife, Diva Faustina, became the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. "[292], Michael Grant, in The Climax of Rome, writes of Commodus:[293], The youth turned out to be very erratic, or at least so anti-traditional that disaster was inevitable. He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 83.5% to 79% – the silver weight dropping from 2.68 g (0.095 oz) to 2.57 g (0.091 oz). Galen, who was in Rome when the plague spread to the city in 166,[282] mentioned that 'fever, diarrhoea, and inflammation of the pharynx, along with dry or pustular eruptions of the skin after nine days' were among the symptoms. 'The Roman Empire as Known to Han China'. Whereas the reign of Marcus Aurelius had been marked by almost continuous warfare, Commodus' rule was comparatively peaceful in the military sense, but was also characterised by political strife and the increasingly arbitrary and capricious behaviour of the emperor himself. [288], Marcus was succeeded by his son Commodus, whom he had named Caesar in 166 and with whom he had jointly ruled since 177. He reduced the weight of the denarius from 96 per Roman pound to 105 per Roman pound (3.85 grams to 3.35 grams). Dio Cassius 73.10.2, Loeb edition translated E. Cary, To “accept kinship with Commodus ... the bluntly pragmatic decision was taken to deify the former emperor, thus legitimizing Severus’ seizure of power.” See, Dio Cassius 73.1.2, Loeb edition translated E. Cary, Dio Cassius 73.5.3, Loeb edition translated E. Cary. [105] Marcus pleaded with Fronto, first with 'advice', then as a 'favour', not to attack Atticus; he had already asked Atticus to refrain from making the first blows. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (/ɔːˈriːliəs/ ə-REE-lee-əs,[1] Latin: [ˈmaːrkʊs̠ au̯ˈreːlijʊs̠ an̪t̪oːˈniːnʊs̠]; 26 April 121 – 17 March 180 AD) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and a Stoic philosopher. In contrast to their behaviour during Antoninus's campaign to deify Hadrian, the senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. [174] Lucius Volusius Maecianus, Marcus's former tutor, had been prefectural governor of Egypt at Marcus's accession. [160] Upon his accession he also devalued the Roman currency. [136][note 8] He did not marry until 164. [125], In 149, Faustina gave birth again, to twin sons. For this reason, Marcus decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there. 1983) 123. [116][note 7] He was the man Fronto recognized as having 'wooed Marcus away' from oratory. He was a man suited for a time of military crisis. III'. [32] His father probably died in 124, during his praetorship, when Marcus was three years old. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (26. dubna 121 – 17. března 180), byl římským císařem v letech 161 až 180, přičemž náležel k tzv. It would have been clear to the public which emperor was the more senior. Despite his notoriety, and considering the importance of his reign, Commodus' years in power are not well chronicled. Disdaining the more philosophic inclinations of his father, Commodus was extremely proud of his physical prowess. [221] Lucius's biographer suggests ulterior motives: to restrain Lucius's debaucheries, to make him thrifty, to reform his morals by the terror of war, and to realize that he was an emperor. Dissatisfaction with this state of affairs would lead to a series of conspiracies and attempted coups, which in turn eventually provoked Commodus to take charge of affairs, which he did in an increasingly dictatorial manner. [6] The main narrative source for the period is Cassius Dio, a Greek senator from Bithynian Nicaea who wrote a history of Rome from its founding to 229 in eighty books. Grant, Michael. [320], A close up view of the Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in the Capitoline Museums, Marcus's victory column, established in Rome either in his last few years of life or after his reign and completed in 193, was built to commemorate his victory over the Sarmatians and Germanic tribes in 176. [284] In the view of historian Rafe de Crespigny, the plagues afflicting the Eastern Han empire of China during the reigns of Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168) and Emperor Ling of Han (r. 168–189), which struck in 151, 161, 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185, were perhaps connected to the plague in Rome. [3] For Marcus's life and rule, the biographies of Hadrian, Antoninus, Marcus, and Lucius are largely reliable, but those of Aelius Verus and Avidius Cassius are not. [192] One of those kings, Vologases IV of Parthia, made his move in late summer or early autumn 161. His tale wasn't believed and he was immediately put to death. Marcus Servilius Fabianus Maximus was shuffled from Lower Moesia to Upper Moesia when Marcus Iallius Bassus had joined Lucius in Antioch. The reign of Marcus Aurelius was marked by military conflict. Marcus Aurelius (latin: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus; født 26. april 121, død 17. mars 180) var romersk keiser fra 161 til 180.Han styrte sammen med Lucius Verus som medkeiser fra 161 og fram til Verus’ død i 169. Marcus and his cousin-wife Faustina had at least 13 children during their 30-year marriage,[123][303] including two sets of twins. ', p. 69. There was, however, much precedent. [74], As quaestor, Marcus would have had little real administrative work to do. The campaign had lasted only three days. It was replaced with a statue of Saint Paul in 1589 by Pope Sixtus V.[321] The column of Marcus and the column of Trajan are often compared by scholars given how they are both Doric in style, had a pedestal at the base, had sculpted friezes depicting their respective military victories, and a statue on top.[322]. [Marcus] did not meet with the good fortune that he deserved, for he was not strong in body and was involved in a multitude of troubles throughout practically his entire reign. Although his mother didn’t spend a great deal of time with him, he had profound respect for her. Reihe 4, Bd. 1, eingeleitet und übersetzt von E. Hohl, bearbeitet und übersetzt von E. Merten (1976) 138. Marcus had chosen a reliable man rather than a talented one. [42] One of his teachers, Diognetus, a painting master, proved particularly influential; he seems to have introduced Marcus Aurelius to the philosophic way of life. In 195, the emperor Septimius Severus, trying to gain favour with the family of Marcus Aurelius, rehabilitated Commodus' memory and had the Senate deify him. [38] He was less fond of the mistress his grandfather took and lived with after the death of his wife Rupilia. [203] Three full legions were also sent east: I Minervia from Bonn in Upper Germany,[204] II Adiutrix from Aquincum,[205] and V Macedonica from Troesmis. Convalescent in his villa at Tivoli, he selected Lucius Ceionius Commodus, Marcus's intended father-in-law, as his successor and adopted son,[50] according to the biographer 'against the wishes of everyone'. Harvard University Press, 1961, 73.10.3, Dio Cassius 73.20.3, Loeb edition translated E. Cary, Gibbon p.. 106 "disgorged at once a hundred lions; a hundred darts". [91] In spite of the influence of Atticus, Marcus would later become a Stoic.
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